Figure 1. Sighting compass |
Multiple people have recommended that I write a post about using a compass. I was reluctant to do so at first, for a couple reasons. The main reason is that reading written instructions in a blog is not the best way to learn how to use a compass. The best way to learn how to use a compass is to hold a compass in your hand and figure it out on your own, not read about it online. The other reason is that one of the main purposes of this blog has always been to provide field techs with useful information they are not likely to get from their crew chiefs or university professors (I started this blog with a post about geomorphology because all my former crew chiefs have had a severe lack of understanding about the topic, and when they did try to teach younger field techs about it, all they did was spread misinformation). But most crew chiefs can teach you how to use a compass perfectly well. And it would probably be more effective to have your crew chief teach you in the field, rather than try to learn from this blog post.
But the archaeologists who have recommended that I write a post about compasses are more seasoned than I am, and I still learn new things from them. So I will defer to their judgment and honor their request.
For the uninitiated, let me back up and explain why archaeologists use compasses. Archaeologists survey parcels of land for archaeological sites by following arbitrary transect lines across their survey areas. We use two main survey methods: shovel testing and pedestrian survey. During a pedestrian survey, we walk across the parcel and look for artifacts on the surface. Shovel testing entails that we search for subsurface artifacts by digging small holes at regular intervals and sifting the excavated soil through hardware cloth.
Both methods may require the use of transect lines, especially on relatively flat terrain. During a pedestrian survey, each field technician will follow a transect line across the parcel, and these transect lines will typically be parallel to one another, spaced apart at regular intervals. This means that the technicians are spaced apart from each other, walking in the same direction along imaginary lines. The interval between each transect line varies by state—in my home state of Illinois, pedestrian survey transects must be spaced no more than five meters (16 feet) apart, but in many Western states, such as Nevada and Wyoming, these transects are spaced about 30 meters (100 feet) apart.
In areas that require subsurface testing, such as a forest or pasture, the technicians will place their shovel tests at regular intervals along imaginary transect lines. In Illinois, and many other states, these transects are spaced about 15 meters (50 feet) apart. Western states such as Wyoming and Nevada don’t really have standards for shovel testing transects because archaeologists in those states don’t use shovel testing to find new sites (they only shovel test after the sites have been found).
You don’t always have to use arbitrary transect lines to conduct a survey. On rugged terrain, many archaeologists prefer to conduct landform-based surveys, in which they follow natural features of the landscape. In mountainous areas, I’ve found that it’s much more effective to walk along the ridgetops and look for artifacts there, rather than single-mindedly follow imaginary lines up and down steep slopes and over treacherous cliffs and gullies.
In the field of statistics, a transect-based survey and a landform-based survey correspond to different sampling methods. Setting up arbitrary transect lines across your survey area is an example of systematic sampling. A landform-based survey is an example of judgment sampling.
I prefer judgment sampling, when it’s applicable, and I think it’s important to know how ancient people used the landscape in different ways. I like to inspect arroyos for bison traps, and I often walk along rock faces in search of rockshelters or petroglyph panels. Even when I’m supposed to be part of a transect-based survey, I frequently wander off my transect to walk up an arroyo or follow a rock face, much to the consternation of my crew mates and supervisors. When I’m supervising other archaeologists, I don’t care much about the precision of transect lines myself.
But some landscapes are so flat that a landform-based survey is basically impossible, and you have to follow transects. In these cases, one of the main challenges for any field tech is staying on transect. That’s not always an easy task, given that transects are completely imaginary lines.
There are two ways to follow an arbitrary transect line in the field. The easiest and most effective is to use a GPS receiver to keep your bearings. A Garmin GPS unit can tell you your current UTM coordinates, which makes it easy to follow a transect line, as long as that line is following a cardinal direction. Tablets and smart phones have internal GPS receivers as well, and they can download a variety of navigational apps, such as Avenza. Avenza is the bane of my existence, but it is very useful because it allows you to draw transect lines at weird bearings that don’t follow cardinal directions.
The more traditional method of following a transect line is to use a compass to follow a bearing. This is essential for all archaeologists (and other outdoorspeople) to know how to do. You may not have access to a GPS, or your GPS receiver may end up lost or broken.
Some archaeologists will berate younger field technicians for making errors while reading compasses. I don’t think this is always fair. Some environments are not conducive to following a compass bearing, and it’s not reasonable to expect one person to stay close to an imaginary line over the course of a mile or more. I’ve used a compass to follow transect lines through dense pocosin forest along the North Carolina coastal plain, where I could not see past 20 feet through the foliage in any direction. It was not possible to sight my compass along something in the distance; I was wobbling randomly through the woods. On at least one of my transects, I’m pretty sure I placed my last shovel test far, far away from the transect’s projected endpoint—possibly on the wrong property. I’ve also participated in a survey in the mountains of northeastern Wyoming, where my transect lines were interrupted by steep slopes and sheer cliffs. Fortunately, I was issued a Garmin GPS receiver, which allowed me to end each transect line at the correct spot.
I should also point out that many older archaeologists are not as skilled in orienteering as they would have the younger generations believe. In the old days, before the availability of accurate GPS equipment, archaeologists used compasses and topographic maps to plot sites on maps by hand. They usually plotted these sites in the wrong spot. I’m not saying I could have done a better job; I’m saying that orienteering with nothing but a topo map and compass is very difficult.
To give you an idea of how difficult orienteering is, I want to draw your attention to the boundary between Wyoming, Montana, and South Dakota, not far from where I live. If you zoom in close, you can see that the western boundary of South Dakota is crooked, where Montana meets Wyoming. It is often said that this is due to a surveying error in the 1800s. One team of surveyors was working their way south, and another was moving north, and they were supposed to meet in the middle. But they missed each other by about a mile, so they drew a crooked boundary where they were supposed to meet. I’ve never been able to find a reliable source to prove this story is true, but I think it probably is. I don’t think the surveyors would have made the boundary like that on purpose. And keep in mind that these surveyors were working in teams, and they were probably equipped not only with compasses, but also theodolites and survey chains. Now imagine what it’s like for a field technician, walking alone on a transect line over rugged terrain and through dense vegetation, with only a compass as a guide. That transect line is not going to be perfect.
Figure 2. Survey error along South Dakota's western border |
With all that being said, you still need to know how to use a compass, for professional reasons as well as for safety. So let’s get started.
Reading a Compass
Every compass that we use in the field is what is called a sighting compass. To understand how a sighting compass works, imagine you are standing in the middle of a circle, and the circle is divided into 360 degrees. If you are facing magnetic north, your bearing is 360 degrees. If you turn around and face south, your bearing is 180 degrees. East is 90 degrees and west is 270 degrees. Choosing any number out of 360 will allow you to follow any possible bearing, not just the four cardinal directions. For example, a bearing of 210 degrees will send you towards the southwest.
Some models of compass have an azimuth ring that must be manually adjusted and aligned with your magnetic needle.
Look at the compass below. Let’s say you’ve been instructed to follow a bearing of 280 degrees. But right now your compass looks like this:
Figure 3. Sighting compass with azimuth ring oriented towards 360 degrees |
So the first thing you do is manually rotate the azimuth ring, so that the mark for 280 degrees is aligned with the notch at the top of the mirror:
Figure 4. Sighting compass with azimuth ring oriented towards 280 degrees |
But the azimuth ring is not aligned with the magnetic needle, which is facing magnetic north. So you must hold the compass out in front of you at arm's length and turn your body until the azimuth ring is aligned with the needle, as such.
Figure 5. Sighting compass with azimuth ring oriented towards 280 degrees and aligned with magnetic needle. It can now be used to follow a bearing of 280 degrees in the field. |
Now, you can look past the compass and see that the notch at the top of the mirror is aligned with an object in the distance. That object is at a bearing of 280 degrees from you. You can walk towards it so that you stay on your transect line. You are “sighting” off that object. It helps to bend the mirror towards you at a 45 degree angle, so that you can see the azimuth ring and magnetic needle reflected in the mirror while you try to sight off an object in the distance.
Not all environments are suitable for sighting with your compass. Some are vast and featureless, like the rolling plains of western North Dakota. Some are so densely vegetated that you can’t see 20 feet in front of your face. In these environments, you may need to “back-sight”—that is, you may need to orient yourself from something behind you.
That’s why it is often useful to have someone else shovel testing on your transect with you. If you are shovel testing across a featureless landscape, you can back-sight off the person behind you on your transect.
That’s one model of compass. Here’s a cheaper compass that’s easier to use. The degree markings are attached to the magnetic needle, so they all spin together; you don’t need to manually align them. Just hold the compass in front of you and sight along whatever bearing you need to follow. Unfortunately, the design of this compass prohibits you from adjusting for declination.
Figure 6. Sighting compass with azimuth ring attached to magnetic needle |
This model of compass includes a magnifying glass rather than a mirror. To read the bearing on the azimuth ring while you have the compass stretched out in front of you, you look through the magnifying glass, as shown below:
Figure 7. Sighting compass with magnifying glass adjusted for reading degree marks. |
Compass Declination
Every compass points towards the magnetic north pole, but most maps are oriented towards the “true” north pole. “True north” is a term that refers to the place where the earth spins on its axis. This is not in the same location as “magnetic north,” where the earth’s magnetic field is pointing downwards. The magnetic north pole is constantly moving. When I was born, it was located somewhere in northern Canada, but it has been consistently moving towards Siberia over the past three decades.
The angular disparity between true north and magnetic north is known as “compass declination.” At most locations on the earth’s surface, true north and magnetic north will be located at different angles from where you are standing.
For example, I’m currently writing this in Belle Fourche, South Dakota. The compass declination here is about eight degrees east (technically, about 7.5 degrees east, but I’ve rounded up to eight). That means magnetic north is oriented about eight degrees east of true north, relative to the spot where I’m standing. My compass needle faces magnetic north, so if I want to face true north (towards the earth’s axis), I need to face a bearing that corresponds with 352 degrees on my compass (360 minus 8).
It can be difficult to add or subtract your compass declination all the time, so it’s nice to have a compass that allows you to manually adjust for declination. Take a look at the first compass I showed you. Right now, the red arrow outline is facing directly at the 360 degree mark. This is adjusted for a declination of 0 degrees, in which true north and magnetic north are in line with one another.
Figure 8. Sighting compass that has not been adjusted for declination |
You can use a key to turn this red outline towards eight degrees. Now, when you align this red outline with your magnetic needle, the 360 degree mark on your azimuth ring is actually facing true north.
Figure 9. Sighting compass that has been adjusted for a declination of eight degrees east |
How do you know what the compass declination for your area is? You can find your location on an isogonic chart, which is specifically designed for showing compass declinations. You can also find that information online, on a website run by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Using the Right Map
Not all maps are intended to be used for navigation. Different maps use different projections. You cannot perfectly represent the earth’s round surface on a flat sheet of paper, so every two-dimensional map must introduce some distortion. There are different kinds of map projections that distort the earth in different ways, to allow for some technical usages, but not others.
A conformal projection can be used for navigation, because it preserves angular integrity at the expense of areal integrity. It shows locations as being at the correct angle from each other, so you can use a compass bearing to navigate between two points on the map. The angle between any two points should correspond with a compass bearing you can follow in real life, assuming you always adjust for declination. However, these maps do not show units of land as being the correct area. Every variation of Mercator projection is a conformal projection, including the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) projections. This includes all the quadrangle maps made by the U.S. Geological Survey. Historically, archaeologists have used these quadrangle maps for their surveys. This is largely because these maps were designed to be used with compasses for navigation.
Figure 10. Conformal projection showing contiguous 48 states. This projection can be used with a compass |
An equal area projection shows units as being the correct area, but the angles between points are distorted. If you try to use an equal area map to navigate, you might get lost, especially if you are navigating between points that are far away from each other. Most archaeological surveys take place at a fairly small scale, so you shouldn’t have to worry about this too much.
Figure 11. Equal area projection showing the contiguous 48 states. This projection cannot be used with a compass. |
An azimuthal equidistant projection is possibly the least effective projection you can pair with a compass; it won’t work at all. An azimuthal equidistant map shows all points on a map as being the correct distance from a single spot in the center of a map. It cannot show these points as being at the correct bearing from one another, or even from the map’s center. Most people don’t see or use these maps all that often. They are mainly used by radio operators or fire watchtowers.
Figure 12. Azimuthal equidistant projection centered on north pole. All points on map are correct distance from north pole. This projection cannot be used with a compass. |
Closing Thoughts
Try to remember that the goal of any archaeological survey is to observe and record real things in the field, not to follow imaginary lines for their own sake. Don’t get too caught up in what is arbitrary, and focus on what is real. There’s no reason to follow a transect line perfectly if you’re missing artifacts or features in the process. And there’s no harm in deviating from your transect line to find something you otherwise would have missed.
Updated on April 9, 2023